The Minds of Billy Milligan - 1963 Words

The Minds of Billy Milligan Out of all the classes that I have taken here at Westfield State College, I can honestly say that Abnormal Psychology has been by far the most interesting. Since this course has had such a major influence on me this semester, I am strongly considering continuing my education in this field of psychology. Throughout the semester, we studied a number of intriguing disorders. The disorder that really seemed to catch my attention was the Dissociative Identity Disorder (DID). I took it upon myself to use this opportunity to learn more about the disorder that seemed to be the most fascinating. This is the main reason why I chose to read The Minds of Billy Milligan, by Daniel Keyes. This true story shows us how a young†¦show more content†¦Besides having the presence of two or more distinct identities or personality states (DSM-IV), the undesirables would steal time from the Big 10. To steal time meant to unlawfully take consciousness from the Big 10. When this happened, damaging a cts would usually occur. This stealing of time perfectly explains another symptom of DID according to the DSM-IV. When the personalities took control of Billys behavior, Billy lost time. To lose time was when another personality would take consciousness and cause the first personality to be unable to recall important personal information that is too extensive to be explained by ordinary forgetfulness. (DSM-IV) Dissociative Identity Disorder is in the category of Dissociative Disorders under Axis I of the DSM-IV. Even though Billy fully exhibits all of the symptoms of the disorder, he was still misdiagnosed. There were several instances where the doctors simply didnt believe in DID. Those that were skeptical of Billy interviewed him and soon believed that Billy Milligan suffered from DID. Even after meeting Billy, some people still refused to believe DID was a legitimate disorder and diagnosed Billy with other disorders. The client, Billy, did agree with the diagnosis because it real ly clarified things for him. Billy was also suicidal, meaning there is a good chance he was depressed as well. Because several of the doctors didnt believe in DID, there was much controversyShow MoreRelatedDissociative Identity Disorder ( Dissociative Disorder )1194 Words   |  5 Pagesfamous case was the one of Billy Milligan. During October of 1977, three women from Ohio State University were kidnapped, lead to a hidden, wooded area, robbed, and sexually assaulted. One lady maintained that the man who raped her had a German accent, while another victim said that (in spite of kidnapping and raping her) he was in reality, â€Å"kind of a decent guy.† However, one man had committed the crimes: a 22-year-old named Billy Milligan. Following his imprisonment, Milligan visited with a psychiatristRead MoreA Split Personality: The Cause and Effects of Multiple Personality Disorder 1285 Words   |  6 Pagesâ€Å"someone else.† Over the years, many people have been diagnosis with Multiple Personality Disorder, whose cases have become famous, including, Shirley Ardell Mason, (better known as Sybil,) Billy Milligan, (â€Å"The Minds of Billy Milligan,†) Trudi Chase (who wrote the book, â€Å"When Rabbit Howls†) and Christine Costner Sizemore, (The Three Faces of Eve.) In all cases to date, Multiple Personality Disorder is generated (or triggered)Read More Multiple Personality Disorder (Dissociative Identity Disorder)735 Words   |  3 Pagessexual, physical, and mental abuse, affects the individuals consciousness and in turn creates altar selves. Categorized into three different groups, altar selves serve as a safety net for the individual, taking the memories out of the conscious mind and walling off the unwanted recollections. Interestingly, altar selves maintain different abilities, ages, dislikes, likes, and names. Many Canadians believe Multiple Personality exists only as an act on behalf of the individual, when in fact,

Frederick Henry Discovered Essay - 1901 Words

Frederick Henry Discovered In A Farewell to Arms, Ernest Hemingway uses his idea of the code hero to introduce us to an amazing character. Hemingway takes his own ideas and conveys them through Frederic Henry. During World War I Frederic Henry proves to us that war and lost love can change a strong and willing man. Most men are not willing to change and Frederic Henry realized that in order for him to survive the many problems he was faced with, he would have to become a more mature man, love and solider. Hemingway’s code hero is portrayed in most every novel that Hemingway wrote. He takes his main character and makes him someone that is hard to change and even harder to make realize the situations around him. His code†¦show more content†¦This was a performance for Jordan (the main character in For Whom the Bell Tolls) because he felt that since this was his job in the war, people might look on his actions for years to come. He wanted people to remember his good â€Å"performance.† The code hero does not want to do anything that could affect what his orders are. Frederic especially wanted to do everything possible in the war that he could. â€Å"He must keep himself in good health in order to do his duty and serve in the war† (Hemingway, A Farewell to Arms 63). Although Hemingway tried to portray Henry as a well-established man, he sometimes is confused and not sure of what to do. â€Å"What Hemingway portrays, in fact, is a good, albeit a disappointed and disillusioned, man trying to fulfill his various obligations† (Nolan 271). He is trying to make his relationship last since he is in love and he is also trying to take care of his duty’s in the war. Although the story is told through first-person narration, we know that Frederic is a clean-shaven man who is tall in stature and although he is not handsome, he is attractive which makes him fit into Hemingway’s code hero. 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Organizational Citizenship Behavior in Carrefour Egypt Free Essays

The British University in Egypt Faculty of Business Administration, Economics and Political Science Exploring OCB and its variables, its evaluation and implementation: The case of Carrefour Egypt A Dissertation submitted in part fulfilment of the requirements for the award of B. A. in Business Administration, Human Resources Management Specialization 2008/09 By Seif Mamdouh Ezzeldin ID: 100558 Honours Level – Class of 05/06 Under the Supervision of Dr. We will write a custom essay sample on Organizational Citizenship Behavior in Carrefour Egypt or any similar topic only for you Order Now Hadia FakhrElDin 1 Organisational Citizenship Behaviour has not been dedicated enough research. The topic is quite new to the HR professionals and challenging. It is also challenging to conduct research on the topic as it has been suggested that OCB is inconsistent and has been stated as an ill-defined science. This paper analysis previous literature done on OCB in parallel with conducting field research in a large multinational in Egypt – in attempt to measure their employees’ OCB and bring the suggested evaluation method into practice. It has been concluded that OCB is not consistent among all employees. However, guidelines to effective evaluate it across different employees have been suggested. Adding to this, the questionnaires in this paper provides a jumpstart for future researchers who wish to evaluate the level of OCB in an organisation. 2 Contents 1. Introduction 1. 1 Research questions 1. 2 Research aims 1. 3 Research Methodology 2- Literature review 2. 1 Definition and history of Organisational Citizenship Behaviour 2. 2 Variables of Organisational Citizenship Behaviour 2. 3 Organisational Citizenship Behaviour can be controllable 2. 4 Organisational Citizenship Behaviour examination is challenging 2. 4. 1 Clarifying in and out role conduct 2. 5 Types of Organisational Citizenship Behaviour 2. Literature Summary 3. Aims and methodology 3. 1 Aims 3. 2 Methodology 3. 2. 1 Questionnaire (1) 3. 2. 2 Questionnaire (2) 3. 3 The research place 3. 4 Advantages and limitation of the methodology adapted 4. Data analysis 4. 1 Questionnaire (1) 4. 1. 1 Highest ranking agreed-with statements (above 66. 6 %) 4. 2 Questionnaire (2) 4. 2. 1 Most agreed upon as in-role (above 66. 6 %) 5. Conclusion 5. 1 Key aims and findings 5. 2 Limitation of the study 5. 3 Directions for future research References Appendix 4 8 9 10 12 12 14 17 19 20 21 25 27 27 30 31 33 34 35 37 37 40 42 46 48 48 51 52 53 55 1. Introduction International trade, European Union, labour mobility, ease of cross border transportation, competition, globalisation, desire to a better living standard and striving for achievement are all factors to employees shifting jobs. Unlike salaries, working conditions, job descriptions and appraisals, these factors cannot be controlled by an organisation. This has all increased interest in Human Resources Management (HRM), careers and Organisational Behaviours (OB) as sciences. An organisation can retain an employee who is not satisfied with his pay by increasing the salary. However, it cannot retain an employee who does not feel committed to the organisation or does not actually feel the organisation is holding on to him/her or treating him as a valued asset; as human resources of organisations were recently categorised as assets since they contribute, develop, control, manage and add value all other different assets (Bisson Branscombe, 2008) The external factors listed are usually considered threats to an organisation as it is always in fear of losing its human resources. Imagine an organisation purchasing very expensive high-tech machines that generated a lot of profit giving it up to a competitor. The consequences are more or less the same if those high-tech machines were top performing employees who may need stronger motivation than money or benefits. The motivation then comes from a newer HR term called Organisational Citizenship Behaviour (OCB). One of the characteristics of being a citizen is being committed (to the norms, cultures, behaviours, attitudes and rules). Commitment to an organisation is referred to as Organisational Commitment (OC). 4 OC has been defined as an attitude involving employee loyalty to the organisation with those employees who are committed being willing to contribute something of themselves to their organisations (Smith and Hoy, 1992). OC is one of the very first attitudes that lead to OCB. It is complemented by organisational trust, the degree of employee satisfaction, involvement in decision-making, sense of importance, career guidance and a sort of monetary motivation. What makes the study challenging is that OCB, an inexact science, is defined as discretionary, ‘extra-role’ behaviour, not formally rewarded or punished by the organization, which, in the aggregate, benefits the organization by improving efficiency and/or effectiveness (Organ, 1988). Although OCB is not an obligation or not part of an evaluation process, employees who enjoy it find it an obligatory factor of the job. Free trade, common markets, economic and political unions – which all fall under the umbrella of globalisation is a main reason why organisations, locally and internationally are now seeking; new areas for sustainable competitive advantages and in the eyes of most, Human Resources are one of the most important factors that cannot easily be imitated by others, which defines a sustainable competitive advantage. As being referred to, OCB is a matter of personal choice that goes beyond the call of duty. It can be reflected in situations such as an employee having to decide on whether to attend an informal company event or spending the evening at home. 5 Below are some of the many types of OCB as identified by Bachrach et al. (2000: 516526) 1. Helping Behaviour or Altruism: Selfless concern to the help of others. For example, an employee may inform his/her absent colleague from a training about what has been missed 2. Sportsmanship: Knowing that there is no loss to a party when it comes to a win for the organisation 3. Organisational Loyalty: Promoting the organisation to outsiders as well as supporting and defending it against threats or attacks 4. Organisational Compliance: The behaviour of complying by the organisation? s rules and norms, considering that not every employee initially complies even though it is a must. 5. Individual Initiative: This entails engaging in task-related behaviours at a level beyond minimally required or generally expected levels that it takes on a voluntary flavour 6. Civic Virtue: This is showing willingness to actively participate in the organisation? governance It can now be said that OCB refers to the ability, willingness and motivation to react and perform in a behaviour that is not required and not aiming to be rewarded for it. One other reason why OCB is being an important issue at the moment is the existence of some countries such as Japan, where a person spends his or her entire life working for one organisation and affiliates his or her name with the organis ation. On the other extreme, there are countries such as Egypt where employees regard the organisation they work for part of their career. 6 Some research results indicate that desirable behaviour is determined and managed by the organization. With reference to the selected variables, this paper will justify whether they are in the controllable or uncontrollable environment of an organisation. 7 1. 1 Research questions The research is intended to answer the following questions through reviewing previous literature and conducting field analysis: What is an agreed upon definition for OCB? Why is OCB not disseminated among HR practitioners? Are there specific grounds for what is defined as in-role and out-role? What are the variables that can be related to OCB and influence the behaviour? Since there are variables that can influence the behaviour, can OCB be aimed for by an organisation or is it uncontrollable? How can the level of OCB be evaluated? 8 1. 2 Research aims The research aims to assess the willingness and level of OCB within a large multinational as Carrefour as well as showing the importance of OCB and briefly reviewing the emergence of HR in Egypt. This adds to the existing literature the justification of why OCB is not a well-known concept in organisations within the business sector of this economy. Moreover, clarification of the difference and the relationship between Organisational Citizenship Behaviour (OCB) and the variables outlined in addition to practically bringing the variables and type into field work is aimed for. This research also aims to integrate the different Human Resources (HR) activities that sum up and lead to OCB. ? OCB is an inexact science and the paper will try to identify factors which lead to this behaviour, that is desirable by all organisations, and how it can benefit them through examining the direct and indirect relation between OCB and the variables which include: ? ? ? ? Satisfaction Empowerment Involvement Trust Confidence Reaching a clear-cut agreement on what is regarded as in-role and out-role through employees, and checking the findings with other similar sources for consistency is also aimed for. 9 1. 3 Research Methodology ? Literature including internet research Academic research portals, case studies Questionnaires: Two questionnaires are used as part of the field research for this paper. The questionnaires were given to a sample of twenty-five employees at Carrefour Obour City, Egypt ? ? ? Targeting random levels of employees throughout the organisation to test and evaluate their understanding of OCB ? The survey will include questions that test the three main variables and sub points listed above and will be designed to be as consistent as possible through getting the same result in different ways. ? The questions criterion of the questionnaire will be categorised into questions that measure 1. Trust; that include dimensions of integrity, competence and dependability Commitment; which will reflect the variable of culture Satisfaction Loyalty The six types of OCB studied in the literature . 3. 4. 5. 10 The surveys shall then attempt to evaluate to what extent is there OCB in Carrefour Egypt based on the variables. The results will be compared to: 1. The management expectations The relationships of the variables and literature on the topic The existence of OCB in the organisation, considering the fact that the management are not fully aware of OCB as a science and are c onsequently not directly enforcing it or progressing towards it 2. 3. 11 2- Literature review 2. Definition and history of Organisational Citizenship Behaviour OCB literature originited in the work of Katz and Kahn who argued that an important behaviour required of employees for the effective functioning of an organisation is the undertaking of innovative and spontanuous activities beyond the prescribed role requirement. (Vigoda 2000). Organisational Cititeznship Behaviour is the individual behavior that is descritionary, not directly or explicitly recognised by the formal reward system, and that in the aggreagate promotes the effective functioning if the organisation (Organ as cited in Denis W Organ 1997). Organ in the same literature further clarifies that by descretionary, it is meant that the behavior is not an enforceable of the role or job description. It is is rather a matter of personal choice such that its ommision is not generally understood as punishable (1997: 86). Organizational citizenship behaviour has been the focus of attention from organizational behaviour researchers (Bachrach et al. , 2000; Organ Ryan, 1995; Organ, 1997; George Battenhausen, 1990 as cited in Chen; Huang; Liu) since Organ in 1988 proposed that organizational citizenship behaviour could influence individual and organization erformance. There has, however, been very little interest in studying the topic. According to the research of Bachrach et al. (2000), very few interest and research was conducted on the topic before 1988. Bachrach et al. explain in their literature that an employee who religiously obeys all rules and regulations, even when no one is watching, is regarded as a â€Å"good citizenà ¢â‚¬  (2000: 524) 12 OCB construct has also been defined as â€Å"†¦ a general tendency to be co-operative and helpful in organisational settings †¦ (LePine, Erez, Johnson, 2002 as cited in Ladebo). Eran Vigoda supports the argument that OCB is regarded as the extra-role activities employees pursue by saying that extra-role behaviours describe activities beyond formal job requirement that one chooses to do without expecting any direct reward (2000: 191). The author also defined in-role as the tasks employees pursue as an integral part of a job. Views of a sample of employees in this regard will be shown further in this paper. Previous studies on employment relations indicated that employees viewed the practice of such behaviours (OCB) as personal obligations to co-operate with co-workers in solving task-related problems and to assist the organisation to achieve its performance objectives (Kessler, Purcell Shapiro, 2004; Buyens , De Vos Schalk, 2001; Janssens, Sels, Van den Brande, 2003 as cited in Ladebo). Hence, this raises the question of whether OCB is still a beyond-role activity or not. If the suggestion is valid; this means that organisations without those behaviours shall fail. Robbins and Judge stated that evidence indicate that organisations only benefit from those employees who have a sense or citizenship to the organisation and those organisations outperform those that do not (2007: 30) and referred to such employees as a need for any successful organisation. 13 2. 2 Variables of Organisational Citizenship Behaviour Katz (1964) states that three basic types of employee behaviours are critical for the overall effectiveness of any organization: ? tempted to remain within the system. carry out their role assignments in a dependable manner. ? innovative and spontaneous activity in achieving There must be organisational People must People must be objectives that go beyond the role specifications. Behaviours (2) and (3) are examples of OCB (Organ, 1988). Other examples of OCB are a willingness to give time helping others who have work-related problems, taking steps to prevent problems with other workers, and obeying organization rules, regulations and procedu res even when no one is watching. Podaskoff has argued that although research on OCB is on the increase, some unfortunate consequences has been brought up (Podaskoff et al. as cited in Chen, Huang Liu). Adler, 1989; Hofstede, 1980 as cited in Chen, Huang Liu further argued that different people from different cultures will not necessarily conform to the same set of norms and will have different beliefs of what can be viewed as OCB. It has been noted that the many occasions in which organizational functioning depends on supra-role behaviour cannot be prescribed or required in advance for a given job. Such 14 behaviours are referred to as the gestures that lubricate the social machinery of the organisation (Bateman as cited in Katz and Kahn 1966). Some examples as portrayed by the authors include helping co-workers with a job related problem or tolerating temporary impositions without complaint. These were referred to as citizenship behaviours (Bateman 1983). The author has also concluded that there is a fundamental connection between satisfaction and OCB. Organisational citizenship behaviour is influenced by job satisfaction. (Bateman 1983). OCB Researchers in at least 15 independent studies as well found a reliable statistical relationship between OCB and job satisfaction (Dennis W. Organ, 1995). Bateman (Bateman 1983). Job satisfaction, especially intrinsic satisfaction, was directly related to OCB. Extrinsic satisfaction did not mediate the relationship between Job characteristics and OCB (SuFen Chiu and Hsiao-Lan-Chen, 2005). As some appraisal methods such as achieving sales quote or calls are related to pay and extrinsic rewards, others including citizenship behaviour and the out-role behaviour are mainly motivated and encouraged through intrinsic rewards and one? s emotions regarding the self. Job characteristics are the attributes of jobs that can have motivational functions for employees. The job characteristics investigated by this study primarily include Hackman and Oldham’s (1975) five core job characteristics (or dimensions) as well as the job interdependence concept. The five core job characteristics are as follows: job variety (the extent to which an employee can use different skills in doing his/her work), job identity (the extent to which an employee can complete the whole or identifiable piece of work), job significance (the extent of the significant impact of the job on others), autonomy (the 15 extent of freedom, independence, and discretion of an employee to plan his/her work pace and method), and feedback (the extent to which an employee knows his/her own job performance from the job itself, colleagues, supervisors or customers (Hackman Oldham, 1980). Job interdependence refers to the extent to which an employee in a team relies on others to complete his/her own tasks (Shea Guzzo, 1987) (as cited in Su-Fen Chiu Hsiao-Lan-Chen, 2005) The social exchange theory also suggests that when an employee feels satisfied with his or her job, he or she will reciprocate with positive behaviour (OCB) to benefit the organisation (Organ Ryan, 1995). Organizations have become more reliant on interdependent social and departmental networks, which have changed the nature of core work activities within the individual work units (Ostroff Smith, 1992). This suggests that it is not only enough for some employees to enjoy such behaviours; OCB must be transmitted across all employees as none work independently. 16 2. 3 Organisational Citizenship Behaviour can be controllable Previous literature suggested that the desirable behaviours, OCB, can be manageable by an organisation (Gene et al, 2000). A good social climate with involvement, fair and competent management, good communication, satisfaction with the organization, and an emphasis on good planning are suggested by the authors to implant this behaviour. Therefore, organisations are also part of the equation; not only the employees. Employees search for companies that are willing to be more committed to them, says Jan Stringer organizations who are more sensitive to their needs and who won’t lay them off during economic slumps (2009). Committed employees tend to have personal values that are similar to those of the company. They are proud to be a part of their company, care about the fate of the company, and recommend the company as a great place to work. Stringer, in her article, suggests some factors in the workplace that influence commitment such as: ? ? ? ? ? Identifying the factors that satisfy employees Identifying factors that are source of dissatisfaction Ensuring that the recognition programmes are meaningful to employees Establishing clear career paths Establishing mentors to advise employees about career management inside the organization ? Identifying benefits that can be used to reward good performance. Ensuring the clarity of the organisation? values as well as ensuring its communication and practice across different organisational levels – clear values 17 help establish teamwork, cooperation and standards of behaviour within an organisation ? Examining the consistency and alignment of actions, policies, and procedures with values It has been argued that a leader? s fair or supportive behaviour may create a need in subordinates to reciprocate. One way to pay-back a leader for the support and fair behaviours is by performing better or engaging in citizenship behaviours (Vigoda 2000). Vigoda? s argument could be linked with the existence of the psychological contract that is concerned with an individual? s subjective beliefs, shaped by the organisation, regarding the terms of an exchange relationship between the individual employee and the organisation (Rousseau as cited in Beardwell Claydon, 2007). It is of importance, however, to mention that some literature proposed an argument that OCB can be a threat to the internal health of an organisation. The literature suggests that OCB has more than two probabilities; present and absent – a third probability is that it can be of negative effect. Vigoda in his paper explains that supervisors and managers have direct influence over subordinates? behaviours by increasing fairness and equality in interactions with them. Hence, in organisations where there is political gamesmanships and power struggles, there will be low concern with values such as equity and fairness and this is where the in-role duties and OCB will be, for the first time, negatively related and result in dissonances (2000: 192). Empirical evidence indicates that employees, who perform less OCB, are likely to exhibit withdrawal behaviours, consider leaving the organisation (Ladebo, 2005 as cited in Ladebo). 18 2. 4 Organisational Citizenship Behaviour examination is challenging Valid evidence to why OCB is not a major concern to Human Resources departments in organisations as other HR focuses is the fact that the rewards that accrue to OCB are at best indirect and uncertain, as compared to more formal contributions such as high productivity or technical excellence or innovative solutions. Those contributions would have a greater likelihood of being expressly linked to the formal reward system. (Organ as cited in Denis W Organ 1997) Organizational citizenship is not a part of the formal evaluation and reward system therefore failure to engage in these behaviours cannot be formally penalized (Van Dyne, Cummings, Parks as cited in Gene et al. , 2000) 19 2. 4. 1 Clarifying in and out role conduct There is a problem, however, that OCB aspects such as accepting tolerance and helping others would be considered part of the job (Organ as cited in Morrison 1994). Morrison concludes her study saying that OCB is ill-defined and varies from one employee to the next and between employees and supervisors. The greater an employee’s perceived job breadth, the more activities he or she defines as in-role (1993:2). This supports the argument that OCB is an inexact science and is viewed differently by different people. The previous argument by Morrison suggests that a manager could define improving the morale of his team members as in-role yet a lower level employee would regard it as out-role. Hypothesis 1 in the article supports this. It has as well been suggested that one of the main problems with defining OCB is the fact that the concept of in and out role is inexact and unclear (Organ 1997) and this justifies the reason for experimenting what employees actually regard as in and out in this concern – theory on its own is a limitation in this regard. Vigoda? s literature as well supports that in and out-role is ill defined and varies from one employee to the other in her literature (2000: 191). 20 2. 5 Types of Organisational Citizenship Behaviour In an attempt to classify and breakdown OCB into different types, the author of this paper refers to Bachrach et al? literature (2000: 516). The authors organised different types of citizenship behaviours into seven main themes: (1) The helping behaviour involves voluntarily helping others with, or preventing the occurrence of, work-related problems and helping others by taking steps to prevent the creation of problems for co-workers (2000: 516, 517). Smith, Orga n Near previously discussed this behaviour in the name of altruism (Becker Vance, 1993). (2) Organ (1990b: 96 as cited in Bachrach et al. , 2000) has defined sportsmanship as â€Å"a willingness to tolerate the inevitable inconveniences and impositions of work without complaining. However, his definition seems somewhat narrower than the label of this construct would imply. The authors added to Organ? s definition that â€Å"good sports† are people who not only do not complain when they are inconvenienced by others, but also maintain a positive attitude even when things do not go their way are not offended when others do not follow their suggestions, are willing to sacrifice their personal interest for the good of the work group, and do not take the rejection of their ideas personally (2000: 517). (3) Organizational oyalty entails promoting the organization to outsiders, protecting and defending it against external threats, and remaining committed to it even under adverse c onditions as well as 21 spreading goodwill and protecting the organization and acts of supporting and defending organizational objectives (2000: 517). (4) Organisational compliance regards the behaviour of complying to an organisation? s policy as a form of citizenship behaviour is that even though everyone is expected to obey company regulations, rules, and procedures at all times, many employees simply do not (2000: 517). The author of this article theoretically views this form of OCB inconsistent. However, because the authors argue that some employees do not originally comply by the policies and norms, the argument is considered valid. Smith, Organ Near previously referred to organisational compliance by the term generalised compliance (Becker Vance, 1993). (5) Individual initiative involves engaging in task-related behaviours at a level beyond minimally required or generally expected levels that it takes on a voluntary flavour. Such behaviours include voluntary acts of creativity and innovation designed to improve one’s task or the organization’s performance, persisting with extra enthusiasm and effort to accomplish one’s job, volunteering to take on extra responsibilities, and encouraging others in the organization to do the same (2000: 524). (6) Civic virtue is projected by showing willingness to actively participate in the organisation? governance such as attending meetings and expressing opinion about what strategy the organisation ought to follow to monitor its environment for threats and opportunities such as keeping 22 up with changes in the industry that might affect the organisation, and to look out for its best interest even at great personal cost. These behaviours, add the authors, reflect an employee? s recognition of being part of a larger whole in the same way that citizens are members of a country and accept the responsibilities which this entails. The authors further outlines that this dimension has not received any empirical confirmation in the citizenship behaviour literature. However, it does appear to be a discretionary form of employee behaviour that is conceptually distinct from the other citizenship behaviour dimensions, and might be expected to improve organizational effectiveness through somewhat different mechanisms than the other forms of citizenship behaviour. All these behaviours are consistent with Organ? s definitions of employees going beyond the formal requirements. The literature portraying the seven types of OCB is regarded as very reliable and trusted as it is supported by arguments of several well known writers who provided literature on the same topic including George Brief (1992), George Jones (1997), Borman Motowidlo (1993, 1997). Williams and Anderson (1991), Van Scotter Motowidlo (1986) and (Organ, 1988) as cited in Bachrach et al. , 2000. As part of the field work for this research, results of a survey will be projected at a further stage showing what different employees regard as in-role and out-role. The actions that employees were asked to comment on were also formed in grouping of the first six types mentioned above, as the self-development? s limitation is that it cannot be measured. The questions constructed were mostly inspired from Morrison? s literature (1994: 1553). 23 However, the addition of the OCB types as measures is an added contribution in this paper. 24 2. 6 Literature Summary The thought about OCB originated with the argument of Katz and Kahn who argued that only the undertaking of innovative and spontaneous activities beyond the regular shall effectively function an organisation. Several authors pioneered by Denis W. Organ defined OCB as a behaviour that is of personal choice; it is discretionary, not intended for reward or recognition and considered beyond-role behaviour. As the term beyond-role was brought into existence, researches, academics and practitioners were not successful in finding agreed upon behaviour that is regarded in-role or out-role by everyone. Moreover, it has been stated that OCB is difficult to research and reach as it is not part of the formal evaluation and reward system. Authors agreed that different employees categorise the same behaviours differently: a manager could define assisting an intern in another department as in-role, while an employee in the same department as the manager would find it out-role. OCB has many related variables that were identified by several authors. Among them are job satisfaction, empowerment, commitment from both the employee and the organisation, involvement, feedback and others. Literature mainly stressed on the job characteristics and satisfaction. Some researches also argued that the OCB, the desired behaviour, can be achieved by an organisation? management through empowering and embedding their employees with toolkits that include research about determinants of satisfaction, dissatisfaction, loyalty, career advisement and behavioural modification. 25 Bachrach and other authors (2000) were able to define seven major types of OCB in their literature titled Organizational Citizenship Behaviours: A Critical Review of t he Theoretical and Empirical and Suggestions for Future Research that can provide great help to practitioners and researches attempting future research to classify, categorise and evaluate OCB within an organisation. 6 3. Aims and methodology 3. 1 Aims The research aims to assess the willingness and level or OCB within a large multinational as Carrefour. It has been observed that majority of the previous literature has either not recently tackled OCB practically and from a practitioner? s viewpoint or has not projected results in a manner simple and comprehended by some other researchers. Adding to this, the concept of OCB is not yet comprehended in the Egyptian business society. Human Resources itself is still considered a new concept. Since the Egyptian Revolution of 1952, employees were granted excess rights that employers themselves were complaining. The rights outweighed the duties and responsibilities. By 1980, the employment law in Egypt was passed and tried to maintain a fair balance between employer and employee rights and was regarded as successful. The law was majorly concerned with three stakeholders other than the employer and the employee; those were the employment office, health office and the social insurance office. Personnel and personnel affairs department (now named Human Resources) have started to exist in large hotels and banks in Egypt by mid 1980s. The concept started developing until what is now called Human Resources – ever since organisations begun realising that employees are one of the most valuable assets. The core duties of the Human Resources department, formerly known as personnel affairs, now include other sub departments such as compensation and benefits, equal opportunities, training and development as well as other functions. Despite the fact that the evolution of HR concepts in Egypt started tens of years earlier, the concept of OCB is not yet used between HR executives and personnel as other terminology is. 27 For this reason and for other reasons such as globalisation and free trade, foreign investment is on increase in the Egyptian economy and the requirement of valuable and durable staff is on the increase. Hence, awareness and application of this term is of extreme importance and this paper could initiate the action. The research also aims to answer the following: ? What is an agreed upon definition for OCB? o This question will be answered through reviewing previous literature and compiling the most important definitions of OCB. ? Why is OCB not disseminated among HR practitioners? o Literature review will be the main guide to answering this question. ? Are there specific grounds for what is defined as in-role and out-role? o The source depended upon for this aim is questionnaire (2) which will show what the sample studied regard is in and out role. ? What are the variables that can be related to OCB and influence the behaviour? Literature review will be the main guide to answering this question. ? Since there are variables that can influence the behaviour, can OCB be aimed for by an organisation or is it uncontrollable? o Literature review as well as questionnaires (1) and (2) will help answer this question as statements and questions in the surveys can guide HR professionals to find out where the loopholes are, and which areas employees need motivation or awareness at. 28 ? How can the level of OCB be evaluated? o The questionnaires given are one source of evaluating OCB. 9 3. 2 Methodology Reviewing the literature of renowned authors and writers about OCB and what has been previously said and published. Due to the fact that OCB is not widely discussed among HR academics and practitioners, extensive research was required to understand the origins, theories, implications and types of OCB. Furthermore, literature review provided solid grounds and a platform upon which the arguments are built. In addition to this, the review assisted the further field work carried on for this paper which will be discussed. The literature review also assisted the author to specify the scope of the paper as well as building knowledge base for future research. Two questionnaires were also used as part of the field research for this paper. Two different questionnaires were given to a sample of twenty-five employees at Carrefour Obour City, Egypt. The respondents were from random departments. However, it has been ensured that only employees and supervisors complete the survey – not workers, in order to ensure consistency and fairness of the results. An employee would find him/herself more committed to and rewarded by the organisation more than a security personnel – this is the present view of the business environment in this culture. 30 3. 2. 1 Questionnaire (1) This is a twenty-five question questionnaire that has been compiled and structured assessing the environment at Carrefour as a large multinational where employees are highly focused on their jobs and do not frequently interact with the top management. The questions were assessing dimensions of trust, integrity, confidence, empowerment, satisfaction, commitment and involvement. The choices for respondents were (1) Agree, (2) Neutral, (3) Disagree. The dimension of trust tackles issues of trust between the employee and his/her organisation, the treatment and his/her colleagues. The dimension of integrity is focused on whether the respondent feels that integrity is demonstrated within the actions and promises of the organisation or not. The confidence is primarily focused on whether the employee is confident about the organisation and management? s capabilities or not. Empowerment assesses whether or not the employee feels empowered enough to step outside his/her department, have opinions in other aspects of the organisation and encouraged to provide feedback in a decent manner even if not required. It has also been tested whether the employees are satisfied or not, in terms of the job, surrounding personnel, the organisation and job security. Commitment was not extensively focused upon in Questionnaire (1) as the primary focus of Questionnaire (2) is commitment – Organisational Citizenship Behaviour in particular. However, Questionnaire (1) assesses the commitment of the employees in the aspect of loyalty and feeling that the organisation is also concerned with him/her as an employee 31 Finally, the involvement dimension tests whether the employee is involved in departmental work, organisational activities, announcements and decision making or not. The results are to indicate whether the employees fulfil and find fulfilled the dimensions mentioned in the organisation and are willing to portray citizenship behaviour or not. 32 3. 2. 2 Questionnaire (2) This is an eighteen question questionnaire adopted from Morrison (1994). Adjustments were made and the questions are restructured and divided to serve the six types of OCB referred to in the literature – three questions assessing each type/component and the respondents mark whether they regard the statement written as in-role (part of what they regard as their formal duty) or outrole( referred to as OCB). The six types/components are individual initiative, organisational loyalty, sportsmanship, civic virtue, helping behaviour and organisational compliance. 33 3. 3 The research place Carrefour is a leading operator in the retail industry worldwide, French based. It has been lastly ranked in the second half of 2007 as the first among twenty-two competitors and the thirty-second most profitable organisation among five-hundred (Global 500, 2007). It is the second-largest retailer in Europe and the first in Egypt. The Carrefour group has fifteen-thousand stores company-operated and franchises. Carrefour Egypt is a franchise to Majid-Al-Futtaim (MAF Group), a renowned business man from the United Arab Emirates who also operates Carrefour in several countries other than Egypt. Carrefour International? s principles guiding the HR policy: 1. Freedom 2. Responsibility 3. Sharing 4. Respect 5. Integrity 6. Solidarity 7. Progress In values (1) to (5), the company included their employees as part of the principles and policy, expressing great concern towards them. In addition to this, points (2), (3), (4) and (5) in particularly is directly related, and part of OCB as have been discussed. 34 3. 4 Advantages and limitation of the methodology adapted Questionnaires as the main source for this field research where chosen as they carry the following advantages: ? As some of the questions are direct and the answers must be confidential, many respondents displayed relief as they found it there are no personal details required There is no risk of conflicting meanings – the questions are set and are not interpreted differently to different respondents. This makes translating a copy of the questionnaire into Arabic a valid action ? ? The questions do not differ from a respondent to another Questions can be re-organised and tackled with different manners after the surveys are c ompleted There is a written record of people? s responses ? ? ? Easier to administer Less time consuming Easier to analyze There are, however, some disadvantages as well: ? ? ? Some people were possibly not honest with their responses Some people might have not fully understood some of the questions Some people may left blank spaces There has been a possibility that some people were biased due to the perception or belief that there is a pre-suggested or pre-agreed upon answer 35 ? ? ? Continuation of fear that the questionnaires could be seen by the HR department The questionnaires and data analysis rely on the honesty of respondents Some of the respondents were confused as Carrefour Egypt HR carry out questionnaires to their personnel twice a year, once in June Limited questions equals limited analysis, which is always a limitation of questionnaires Due to the existence and awareness of these disadvantages and limitations, actions were taken accordingly: ? Extreme confidentiality w as given to respondents. The questionnaires projected the aim and privacy assurance to the respondents. Moreover, some of the respondents have been verbally re-assured that the surveys are kept confidential. ? In addition to this, further assurance was made to some of the respondents that the researcher is not affiliated with the organisation in any way and it has also been made clear by the HR personnel that this questionnaire has nothing to do with the company? s formal periodical evaluation. 36 4. Data analysis 4. 1 Questionnaire (1) This is a twenty-five question questionnaire that has been compiled and structured assessing the environment at Carrefour as a large multinational where employees are highly focused on their jobs and do not frequently interact with the top management. The questions were assessing dimensions of: ? Integrity and equal opportunity: This dimension tests whether integrity is demonstrated in actions by the management and employees of the organisation as well as testing fairness among employees and equal opportunities. Example statement: This organization treats its employees fairly and justly ? Confidence: This dimension measures the degree of confidence among employees about the skills and abilities of the organisation as well as confidence of being generally valued. Example statement: I feel very confident about this organization? skills ? Empowerment: This dimension evaluates the degree of empowerment, autonomy and freedom that employees feel they are equipped with. Example statement: My manager/supervisor encourages creativity/innovation by reducing the fear of failure 37 ? General satisfaction: This dimension questions the level of satisfaction employees have – satisfaction from the job, working conditions, job security as w ell as informal networks. Example statement: The organization fails to satisfy the needs of its employees like me ? Commitment : This dimension evaluates the degree of commitment in the organisation. Not only whether employees are committed; but also if they feel the organisation is mutually committed. Example statement: I feel that this organization is trying to maintain a long-term commitment to its employees and me ? Involvement: The involvement dimension evaluates to what extent are the employees involved in different aspects of the organisations – involvement in non-work related activities, company posts and updates, competitive position and information on other departments. Example statement: I am usually aware and my supervisor keeps me informed of the company? s ongoing situations The results of the survey are shown in Figure 4. 1 38 Agree Satisfied This organization treats its employees fairly and justly This organization can be relied on to keep its promises I believe that this organization takes the opinions of its employees like me into account when making decisions I feel very confident about this organization? skills I think it is important to watch this organization closely so that it does not take advantage of its employees and me I feel that this organization is trying to maintain a long-term commitment to its employees and me Compared to my previous workplace(s), I value my relationship with this organization more I feel a sense of loyalty to this organization I think other employees are happy in their interactions with this organization The organization fails to satisfy the needs of its employees like me I am aware of the company? overall s trategy I feel my department gets support and teamwork from other areas within the company My manager/supervisor encourages creativity/innovation by reducing the fear of failure My manager/supervisor demonstrates professionalism I understand how the company’s strategy differentiates us from the competition I am usually aware and my supervisor keeps me informed of the company? s ongoing situations (ups and downs, etc) How satisfied are you with with your job? How satisfied are you with the morale of the people with whom you work How satisfied are you with your own morale? I feel that my work gives me a sense of personal accomplishment How satisfied are you that you receive appropriate recognition for your contributions? How satisfied are you with your overall job security? How satisfied are you with your informal life and networks within your organisation? Does your company show enough consideration to your personal time outside work? As an employee, I feel empowered to make decisions beyond my job description 14 13 7 23 6 18 23 21 5 2 18 16 19 23 20 15 21 12 16 20 12 14 8 12 7 Neutral 8 9 12 0 10 7 1 3 14 11 4 6 3 1 4 9 3 10 5 4 8 8 12 9 12 Disagree Dissatisfied 3 3 6 2 9 0 1 1 6 12 3 3 3 1 1 1 1 3 4 1 5 3 5 4 6 Percentage % Agree Neutral Satisfied 56 52 28 92 24 72 92 84 20 8 72 64 76 92 80 60 84 48 64 80 48 56 32 48 28 12 12 24 8 36 0 4 4 24 48 12 12 12 4 4 4 4 12 16 4 20 12 20 16 24 Disagree Dissatisfied 32 36 48 0 40 28 4 12 56 44 16 24 12 4 16 36 12 40 20 16 32 32 48 36 48 Figure 4. 1 Questionnaire (1) responses 39 4. 1. 1 Highest ranking agreed-with statements (above 66. 6 %) The highest ranking statements have been grouped into four categories: Job contributors, supervisory contributors, involvement contributors and commitment contributors. 1- Job: ? I feel that my work gives me a sense of personal accomplishment (80%) How satisfied are you with with your job? (84%) This shows that the majority of employees in Carrefour are both satisfied with their jobs there and feel that their jobs add to their sense of personal accomplishment. This can be attributed to the fact that Carrefour Egypt asks the employees for eval uations, said Mr. Hussein, which partially focus on weather an employee: ? ? ? ? Likes the job and likes the organisation Likes the job but dislikes the organisation Dislikes the job but likes the organisation Dislikes the job and the organisation – Supervisory: ? ? My manager/supervisor demonstrates professionalism (92%) My manager/supervisor encourages creativity/innovation by reducing the fear of failure (76%) This shows that the majority of employees are satisfied with their managers and supervisors in terms of being a „role-mode? within the organisation or being empowered 40 enough by them to be calculated risk-takers. This is attributed to the complex selection and recruitment at Carrefour Egypt, as well as a periodical corporate review. 3. Involvement: ? ? ? I am aware of the company? s overall strategy (72%) I feel very confident about this organization? s skills (92%) I understand how the company’s strategy differentiates us from the competition (80%) This shows that employees across Carrefour are aware of the company? s strategy and therefore aware of the vision and mission statements. The result shown is possibly because of communication the vision and mission across the organisation, as well as the employees initiating eagerness to learn more about the organisation. 4. Commitment: ? I feel a sense of loyalty to this organization (84%) Compared to my previous workplace(s), I value my relationship with this organization more (92%) ? I feel that this organization is trying to maintain a long-term commitment to its employees and me (72%) The majority of the employees value Carrefour more than their previous employers as well as feeling they are loyal to this organisation. This goes back to the fact that commitment is shown both f rom the organisation and the employees at the same time. 41 4. 2 Questionnaire (2) This is an eighteen question questionnaire adopted from Morrison (1994). Adjustments were made and the questions are restructured and divided to serve the six types of OCB referred to in the literature – three questions assessing each type/component and the respondents mark whether they regard the statement written as in-role (part of what they regard as their formal duty) or out-role( referred to as OCB). The six dimensions are: ? Individual initiative: This dimension evaluates to what extension the employees themselves are eager to perform more duties than their job entails. Example statement: Thinking you should also think of what is best for the organisation even if not asked or involved ? Organisational loyalty: This dimension examines the level of loyalty employees possess. Loyalty in this case is examined by actions employees perform that are non-work related that prove they are, for no reward, loyal to the organisation. Example statement: Attending voluntary functions that help the organisation? s image ? Sportsmanship: This dimension tests to what extents could employees prioritise work requirements and exceptions even on their own expense. 2 Example statement: Not taking excess time off, even if you have extra vacation days ? Civic virtue: Other than fulfilling the job, some employees show willingness to participate or provide viewpoints in governing the organisations. Civic virtue tests this perspective. Example statement: Attending voluntary meetings considered important ? Helping behaviour: The helping behaviour is shown by employees through t he willingness to help others and as well prevent problems for occurrence. Example statement: Covering for co-workers who are absent or on break ? Organisational compliance: Although organisational rules and policies should be abided by, some employees still don? t. This dimensions, therefore, tests to what extent employees comply. Example statement: Not spending time on personal telephone conversations Based on questionnaire (2) and the responses, Figure 4. 2 shows the contribution of each dimension to the whole (OCB) as shown by the employees at Carrefour. Figure 4. 3 shows the results of Questionnaire (2) 43 Organisational Citizenship Behaviour The Dimensions Individual Initiative Organisational loyalty Sportsmanship %12 Civic virtue Helping behaviour Organisational compliance %19 %19 %31 %8 %11 Figure 4. 2 OCB components 44 Action Thinking you should also think of what is best for the organisation even if not asked or involved Keeping up with changes and developments in the organisation Helping people outside department when they have a problem Reading and keeping up with organizational announcements Helping organize departmental get-togethers Attending voluntary functions that help the organisation? image Coming to work early if needed Having to work overtime because of a colleague? s mistake, not you Not taking excess time off, even if you have extra vacation days Attending voluntary meetings considered important Volunteering to do things without being asked Helping orient new people even when not asked Covering for co-workers who are absent or on break Helping others with work when they have been absent Giving time to help others with work-related problems Being punctual everyday regardless of weather, traffic, etc Not spending time on personal telephone conversations Not spending time in non work related issues Regarded in-role 9 Percentage % 36 Dimension Individual Initiative 4 5 18 2 5 3 6 19 17 4 21 11 20 13 22 23 25 16 20 72 8 20 12 24 76 68 16 84 44 80 52 88 92 100 Individual Initiative Individual Initiative Organisational loyalty Organisational loyalty Organisational loyalty Sportsmanship Sportsmanship Sportsmanship Civic virtue Civic virtue Civic virtue Helping behaviour Helping behaviour Helping behaviour Organisational compliance Organisational compliance Organisational compliance Figure 4. 2 Questionnaire (2) responses Adopted from Morrison, E. W. 1994) „Role definitions and organizational citizenship behaviour: The importance of the employee? s perspective.? Academy of Management Journal, 37, 1556 45 4. 2. 1 Most agreed upon as in-role (above 66. 6 %) 1. Organisational compliance: ? ? ? Being punctual everyday regardless of weather, traffic, etc (88%) Not spending time on personal telephone conversations (92%) Not spending time in non work related issues (100%) It is clearl y observed the majority of employees regard complying with rules, policies and the psychological contract as in-role behaviours. In theory, organisational compliance has to be regarded as in-role already. However, due to the suggestion that not all employees comply, it has been surveyed. This proves the opposite of Morrison? s hypothesis that it might not be regarded as in-role – it is. The dimension of organisational compliance is the most agreed upon as in-role among the questioned employees and constitutes thirty-one percent of the OCB in Carrefour. Like in Morrison? s research, organisational compliance is the most agreed upon dimension as being in-role – 89, 80 and 68 percent respectively. . Helping behaviour: ? Helping others with work when they have been absent (80%) This may be attributed to the culture of Egyptian people more than for the business environment – people known to be helpful and cooperative. In Morrison? s research, agreement to this behaviour as in-role was 78 percent. 3. Civic Virtue: ? Attending voluntary meetings considered important (68%) 46 In comparison to the original research, the result here shows 18% higher agreement. This would further justify the 80% loyalty demonstrated in questionnaire (1). 4. Sportsmanship: ? Not taking excess time off, even if you have extra vacation days (76%) This is backed up by the fact that 80% of the respondents in questionnaire (1) agree to the statement which says that their work gives them a sense of personal accomplishment. Moreover, it supports the result in section 4. 4. 1 as job satisfaction is one of the highest contributors to the employees? commitment. The result in this research exceeds the original work by 10 percent. 5. Organisational loyalty: ? Reading and keeping up with organisational announcements (72%) The original research exceeds this result by 12 percent. However, 72 percent of employees regarding this statement as in-role is quite a satisfactory rate, especially that only 56 percent of the employees agreed to the statement that their manager/supervisor cares to keep them updated in questionnaire (1). Furthermore, loyalty has been also proved in several other statements. The general agreement between this research and the original research done by Morrison (1994) shows consistency and proof that these elements are regarded as in-role by most employees. 47 5. Conclusion 5. 1 Key aims and findings The research aims at defining OCB from an academic and a practical viewpoint as well as assessing the willingness and level of OCB within a large multinational as well as showing the importance of OCB and briefly reviewing the emergence of HR in Egypt. Moreover, clarification of the difference and the relationship between Organisational Citizenship Behaviour (OCB) and the variables outlined in addition to practically bringing the variables and type into field work is aimed for. This research also aims to integrate the different Human Resources (HR) activities that sum up and lead to OCB. The research questions: ? What is an agreed upon definition for OCB? (Chapter 2) Organisational Cititeznship Behaviour is the individual behavior that is descritionary, not directly or explicitly recognised by the formal reward system, and that in the aggreagate promotes the effective functioning if the organisation. It is also regarded as the extra-role activities employees pursue by saying that extra-role behaviours describe activities beyond formal job requirement that one chooses to do without expecting any direct reward. ? Why is OCB not disseminated among HR practitioners? Chapter 2) OCB is still regarded as a new term. Moreover, there has been a very limited number of literature on OCB in comparison with other HR terms. Adding to this the difficulty of defining the actions and conduct that is regarded as beyond-role. 48 ? What is defined as in-role and out-role? (Chapters 2 4) There has been agreed upon behaviours for what is regarded as in-role. As for out-role or beyond-res ponsibility conduct, it is concluded that the difference in employment level will always let individuals interpret in and out-role differently. Hence, it is also concluded that OCB varies proportionately with the level of employment which agrees with the common sense. Like most managers are more satisfied with their jobs (due to pay, prestige and benefits), they are also more committed and portray more citizenship behaviours. Furthermore, like a new employee is not used to the organisation and not regarded as loyal yet, his OCB is still in the introduction phase. ? What are the variables that can be related to OCB and influence the behaviour? (Chapter 2) The literature outlined many variables that are related and complements the favourable behaviour. Among these variables are job satisfaction, loyalty, commitment, sportsmanship, compliance and integrity. ? Since there are variables that can influence the behaviour, can OCB be aimed for by an organisation or is it uncontrollable? How can the level of OCB be evaluated? (Chapters 2 4) From the literature, it is concluded that organisations can focus more on studying the variables and elements that lead to the favourable behaviours desired such as identifying the factors that satisfy employees, establishing clear career paths and examining the consistency and alignment of actions, policies, and procedures with values. In addition this, the field research in chapter 4 summarises and adds the 49 contributors, variables and components of OCB which, if read and analysed by organisations, will provide assistance on how to modify their employees behaviours and enable them to reach the behaviour needed for success and prosperity of any successful organisation. The surveys conducted provide valid foundation to organisations who wish to evaluate their level of OCB as the surveys successfully reached this aim – with further modifications that suit every organisation. 50 5. Limitation of the study Due to the fact that OCB has not been granted enough interest from researchers and practitioners up-to-date, the amount of literature available was not of high assistance to the theoretical study. Moreover, direct help from the practitioners, especially in Egypt was difficult to find as they have not been informed of OCB and its implications. Adding to this, many organisations are not in favour of researcher s conducting surveys in their premises, especially of critical and confidential information such as commitment, loyalty, fairness and trust. Another limitation is the small number of sample as only one branch of Carrefour (Obour) was examined. This may influence the result as not to reflect the opinions of employees in Carrefour in Egypt, but only Carrefour Obour. However, the researcher has been assured that the same managerial and leadership style as well as working conditions are followed not only in Carrefour Egypt; however it is internationally abided by. The topic also limits researchers due to the fact that the level of OCB differs from one employment level to another. Finally, it is concluded that as a conduct or action is considered to be in the employment/psychological contract, it is automatically more regarded as in-role. Evidence of this is the fact that organisational compliance is the highest contributor to the OCB of the organisation while the all elements of the compliance are elements of any employment contract. 51 5. 3 Directions for future research It has been concluded in this paper that the level of OCB varies from an employment level and duration to another. As a result, the topic needs to be further expanded in future research. Future field research should assess different levels of employees as well as grouping employees that have been employed in an organisation for similar durations to maintain fairness and consistency. Furthermore, research in different types of organisations should take place. It is expected that in a service industry, the level of OCB should be higher than in others due to the fact that employees are more empowered as they interact more with their customers – the main source of revenue and sustainability. The future research should take place in different industries and questioning whether the results could or could not be compared against each other. Adding to this, conducting the research in a non-for-profit organisation would be a very good example of OCB for reasons that include the fact that NPOs do not compensate its employees, or the compensation is not profit generating. As a result, employees have more committing reasons than monetary rewards and motivation. This research was initially intended to research this issue. However, due to the limited time and resources, this has not been feasible. A suggested NPO is AIESEC (www. aiesec. org). An international NPO considered role model to NGOs and NPOs. Members of this organisation demonstrate the highest levels of OCB that can be observed. Word count 9,072 52 References Bachrach, et al. (2000) „Organizational Citizenship Behaviors: A Critical Review of the Theoretical and Empirical and Suggestions for Future Research.? Journal of Management, 26, 51. 1-61. 1 Bateman, T (1983) „Job Satisfaction and the Good Soldier: The Relationship between Affect and Employee †Citizenship†? 26(4), 587-595 Beardwell, J Claydon, T (2007) Human Resource Management: A Contemporary Approach. Essex: Prentice Hall. Becker, T Vance, R (1993) „Construct validity of three types of organisational citizenship behaviour: an illustration of the direct product model with refinements.? Journal of Management, 19(3), 664-682 Bisson, S Branscombe, M (2008, February 19) „Employees are our most valuable asset?. Editorial. Retrieved March 30, 2009 from http://www. itpro. co. uk/blogs/maryb/2008/02/19/ Chiu, S and Chen, H (2005) „Relationship between job characteristics and organisational citizenship behaviour: the meditational role of job satisfaction.? Social behaviour and personality, 33(6), 523-540 Gene, et al. (2000) „Good soldiers and their syndrome: organizational citizenship behavior and the work environment.? North American Journal of Psychology, 2(2) Katz, D. (1964) „The motivational basis of organisational behaviour.? Behaviour Science, 9(2), 131-133 Ladebo, O „Perceived supervisory support and organisational citizenship behaviours: Is job satisfaction a mediator South African Journal of Psychology, 38(3), 479-488 Liu, C. , Huang P. , and Chen, C „Organisational Citizenship Behaviour in a Non-U. S. ontext: its dimensions, antecedents and consequences? Morrison, E. (1994) „Role definitions and organizational citizenship behaviour: The importance of the employee? s perspective.? Academy of Management Journal, 37, 15431567 Organ, D (1995) „Personality, Satisfaction and Organisational Citizenship Behaviour.? The journal of social psychology, 135(3), 339-350 Organ, D Ryan K. (1995) „A meta-analytic review of attitudinal and dispositional predictors of organizational citizenship behaviour.? Personnel Psychology, 48, 775-802 Organ, D (1997) „Organisational Citizenship Behaviour: It? Construct Clean-Up Time? 10(2), 85-97 Robbins, S Judge, T (2007) Organizational Behavior. New Jersey: Prentice Hall 53 Smith, D Ostroff, F (1992) „The horizontal organisation.? The McKensey Quarterly, 1, 148-167 Stringer, J. „The secret to keeping employees committed?. Southern Methodist University. Retrieved May 16, 2009, from http://EzineArticles. com/? expert=Jan_Stringer Vigoda, E (2000) „Internal politics in public administration systems: An empirical examination of its relationship with job congruence, organizational citizenship behaviour, and in-role performance.? Public Personnel Management, 29, 185-210 Interview with Mr. Amr Hussein, Carrefour Obour H. R. Manager. Dated May 12, 2009 at Carrefour Obour offices. (2007, 23 July) „Carrefour?. Fortune Global Five 500. Retrieved May 18, 2009 from http://money. cnn. com/magazines/fortune/global500/2007/snapshots/7881. html www. carrefour. com 54 Appendix Questionnaire (1) This is not a test. There are no „right? or „wrong? responses to the statements that follow. A response is only „right? if it reflects your personal opinion, and the strength of your reaction, as accurately as possible. Please indicate the level of your agreement with the following statements. Answers are to be kept confidential and shall only be used for academic purposes; no names or personal information required. It should not take more than 10 minutes to complete this questionnaire. This organization treats its employees fairly and justly Agree Disagree This organization can be relied on to keep its promises Agree Disagree Neutral Neutral I believe that this organization takes the opinions of its employees like me into account when making decisions Agree Neutral Disagree I feel very confident about this organization? skills Agree Disagree I think it is important to watch this organization closely so that it does not take advantage of its employees and me Agree Neutral Disagree I feel that this organization is trying to maintain a long-term commitment How to cite Organizational Citizenship Behavior in Carrefour Egypt, Papers

Relationship in Between the US and Russia - MyAssignmenthelp.com

Question: Discuss about theRelationship in Between the US and Russia. Answer: Introduction Nowadays, the world is witnessing the importance of the relationship between the nations. Along with that, the proper maintenance of the relationship in between any two or more nations can be considered as a good faith for the entire world. The relationship in the middle of the United States and Russia is considered as the reciprocal relationship in the middle of United States and the Russian alliance that is the successor condition of Soviet Union. Both the nations keep up the best possible conciliatory and exchange connections in the middle of them. The connection was very great under the Russian president Boris Yeltsin amid the time of 1991 to 1999. In any case, the connection was begun to get biting when the occurrence of NATO shelling occurs in 1999. Since this occurrence, the connection between these two nations has begun to fall apart under the president Vladimir Putin ("No Thaw In USRussia Nuclear Relations Seen At Recent Conference" 2016). In addition to that, in 2014, the r elation between these two countries was strained because of the crisis in the Ukraine. The main aim of this particular study is to evaluate the relationship between the United States and Russia. Along with that, the study also aims to satisfy the different ways through which the two nations demonstrated the proper link in between the security and the identity. Assessment of the Relationship in Between the US and Russia since 1991 In late 1980s, the nations from Eastern Europe took the upside of the redirection of the Soviet control under Mikhail Gorbachev and a while later they start to break the principles as for the communism. From that point on, the relationship amidst the two nations has upgraded amazingly in the latest years of the USSR. Around the complete of 1989, the US president George Bush and Gorabachev declared the chilly war over at the Malta Summit. Starting now and into the near future, at the complete of 1991, the Soviet Union was separated and the territory of the Independent communicates that was considered as the free relationship of the past USSR's constituent republic was made. The association between these two nations was extremely kind in the season of Bill Clinton and Boris Yeltsin in the 1990s. In the midst of the season of Vladimir Putin and George Bush, both the nations have started to have some sort of contrasts (Ditrych 2014).Russia has become more confident in the different inter national affairs. Along with that, under George Bush, the nation took an enhanced amount of unilateral course in their foreign policy after the Twin Tower attacks. The leadership of Russia has blamed the US officials regarding the fact that they encourage the anti-Russian revolts in Georgia, 2003 during the period of Rose Revolution and the Orange Revolution that happened in the Ukraine. However, both Bush and Putin have maintained a good and warm personal relationship in between them. In 2002, United States withdraw themselves from the Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty so that they can move forward with the plans regarding the missile defense system ("No Thaw In USRussia Nuclear Relations Seen At Recent Conference" 2016). However, Putin considered that decision as a big mistake. Along with that, Russia opposed the invasion of Iraq in 2003. At the start of 2007, US announced the plans in order to build a proper installation of the anti-ballistic missile defense in Poland and it was asso ciated with a radar station in the Czech Republic. Both Russia and the US were the members of Warsaw Pact. The officials from the US said that the establishment of the entire system was mainly to protect the US and the Europe from the nuclear attacks that can be done by Iran or North Korea (Stent 2012). However, Russia has viewed the entire system as a threat and regarding that threat, they have tested a long-range intercontinental ballistic missile, namely RS-24. This particular missile claims that it can defeat any defense system. The Russian president has warned the US regarding the fact that these kinds of tensions could be harmful for the entire Europe into a barrel of gunpowder. On mid of 2007, the Russian president had warned the US regarding the fact that if the US builds the missile defense system, then Russia would target the missiles at both Poland and the Czech Republic (Davis, 2015). At the end of 2007, the Russian president visited Iran in order to discuss the aid of t he Russia regarding the nuclear program of Iran. At the same time, the US president threatened that if Russia wants to avoid the World War iii, then they needs to be interested to prevent Iran to have the necessary knowledge regarding the creation of the nuclear weapon. At the early 2008, Putin stated that, the Russia should have to retarget some of their missile towards the missile defense system (Coleman 2014). At the end of 2008, the relationship between the two nations become more difficult, when both Russia and Georgia gone through a five day war over the Abkhazia and South Ossetia that were the self proclaimed republic of Russia. The relationship was very much difficult during the Bush and Putins administration, however the US president Barack Obama and the Russian president Dmitry Medvedev provides a warm tone at the G20 Summit in London and both the nations had provided a joint statement that pledge a fresh and new start to the relationship in between the two nations (Schild , 2013). Along with that, a statement was also provided on Iraq in order to abandon their nuclear program and permits the foreign inspectors to have a visit to the country. In July 2009, the US president visited to Moscow where he had the meetings with the Russian president and the Prime Minister. In March 2010, both the nations reached to an agreement in order to reduce their stockpiles of the different nuclear weapons (Kanet 2015). Again, on a visit to Moscow in 2011, the vice president of the US had a meeting with the leading human rights and the different opposition leaders of the Russia. In those meetings the vice president has reported generated the fact that the gathering at the Spaso House at the US ambassadors residence and it was considered that it would be better for Russia if the Prime minister Vladimir Putin did not run for the re-election in the 2012. It is evident that since twenty years, cold war had got into the national conflicts between two strong nations the Russia and United States. However the cold war besides creating major drawbacks had ushered into positive relations between both and creating new vision to their existing aspects and mission (Deudney and Ikenberry 2009). It was observed that the nations had drawn principles and agreed to settle under international liberal order that enhanced and assured peace between them. The cold war itself became weapon towards bringing out the peace and bridging the rift between the two. But with time, the Russian shifted and turned against to such policies and agreements and entered into a newer politics resulting in disagreements, conflicts and disappointment. There was an expanded pressure amongst Russia and United States post the time of chilly war. As analyzed it is seen that in the time of 2012, Russian general Nikolay Makarov expressed that there may be a probability of a protective strike in the rocket guard locales of Eastern Europe that was to put strain and weight inside the United States in understanding to the Russian cravings. In the time of 2012, NORAD contenders inside the air resistance region around the shore of Alaska seized two Tu-95 Bears. They were under compelling practice in pointing the Fort Greely and Vandenberg Air Force Base. The Akula-class submarine in the time of August 2012, had experienced a watch in the Gulf of Mexico and was not being distinguished legitimately, while raising cautioning alarm inside the United States Navy's against submarine conceivable outcomes of fighting (Deudney and Ikenberry 2009). In the year of 2012, December, Barack Obama, the U.S. president had formulated and undergone the Magnitsky Act that stated and imposed United States travel restrictions and financial restrictions in relation to human rights and abusers within the territory of Russia. However, in the year of 2012, Vladimir Putin signed the Russian president had signed a significant bill that attempted to restrict and limit United States citizen from any means of child adoption within the territory of Russia (Webster 2013). It was observed after prolong examination that two Russians had been trying to implant nuclear missiles and bombs around the territory of Guam, United States. This was officially reported in the year 2013. In the year of 2014, U.S government was found accusing Russia for violating the nuclear forces and has been suspected of attacking the nation with ballistic missiles and bombs affecting the lives of the millions (Casula, 2010). The Treaty of Nuclear Forces probed into the matter t esting the Russian armament and prohibited launching of missile. It is evident that since 1922 to 1991, Russia became largest of all Soviet Union (Stone 2016). There arose a struggle between the capitalists and the communist causing war and social diversification. The significant takeovers of the epic battle were the soviets and states. Russia sooner incorporated several effective strategies in the adoption of democratic and capitalist perspectives. Towards the beginning of the World War II, millions of weapons and equipments were produced and given to multiple countries as well as Soviet Union by the United States (Ginzburg 2014). The worth of weapons was lot more than the weapons produced all over the world. In addition, the United States had supported the other countries ion their conflict and war against the Nazi community. This strengthened the relation of United States with other countries whom they were in support of. In relation to the reports and records assessed in the yea r of 2007, it was assumed that Russia under Vladimir Putin had undergone several cold war conflicts. The Russians had been termed as hackers as they had tried to attack the U.S government systems and the White House as examined by the Secret Service (Sudakov, 2015). It was suspected by the Russian researcher that America is trying to establish Russia as a state by funding for free Radio that is broadcasted in regional languages in the territory of Russia. This strategy is suspected as American propaganda in bringing in Russia as a state. It is observed that United States and Russia have undergone military plans and programs jointly and have been training armies against the counter-terrorist exercises in Germany (Rywkin 2013). This plan was implemented under the consideration of governmental supervision in strengthening the relationship between United States and Russia. As evident, Russian president had formulated a defense system by preparing and modifying missile plans in Azerbaija n. This proposal had disputes besides that was examined and evaluated by the Russian government however was being considered by the United States. Ata later period, around 2008, there was a trigger of tension and pressure in Georgia, when the United States had discarded the coordination and joint venture of NATO-Russia in relation to its military exercises (Webster 2013). Conclusion: Successful relationship will not result from bridging the gaps and build the bond under common similarities and national interests rather need to address the formulated legacies and unravel the reasons behind the conflicts. It is important for eth two nations in correlating their administrative policy and similarities along way combine the power in extracting liberal and positive outcomes. Russia and the United States need to restore their foreign policy and fundamental desires and interests. In addition, the nation need recover and restore from its existing policy orientation rather implement strategic settlements. They need to revert back with spectacular approaches with unprecedented reversals and agreement on the Russian corner in relation to settlement diplomacy and administrations. The Russians need to seek towards retaining cooperative leadership and management and solve existing difficulties under the supervision of policy makers. Therefore it can be said that, the proper rel ationship in between these two nations can enhance their performance in the external level and can make them a step ahead than the other nations. References Coleman, Heather J. 2014.Orthodox Christianity In Imperial Russia. 1st ed. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press. Ditrych, Ondrej. 2014. "Bracing For Cold Peace. US-Russia Relations After Ukraine".The International Spectator49 (4): 76-96. doi:10.1080/03932729.2014.963958. Kanet, Roger E. 2015.The New Security Environment. 1st ed. Aldershot, Hants, England: Ashgate. "No Thaw In USRussia Nuclear Relations Seen At Recent Conference". 2016.Physics Today. doi:10.1063/pt.5.1066. Stent, Angela. 2012. "USRussia Relations In The Second Obama Administration".Survival54 (6): 123-138. doi:10.1080/00396338.2012.749635. Deudney, Daniel, and G. John Ikenberry. 2009. "The Unravelling Of The Cold War Settlement". Survival 51 (6): 39-62. doi:10.1080/00396330903461666. Webster, Allen L. 2013. "The Relationship Between Economic Freedom And Income Equality In The United States". International Business Economics Research Journal (IBER) 12 (5): 469. doi:10.19030/iber.v12i5.7822 Stone, Richard. 2016. "Russia Suspends Nuclear RD Pact With United States". Science. doi:10.1126/science.aal0243. Ginzburg, L. A. 2014. "Understanding Russia In The United States: Images And Myths, 1881-1914". Journal Of American History 101 (2): 606-607. doi:10.1093/jahist/jau451. Rywkin, Michael. 2013. "Common Interests Of The United States And Russia: A Reflection". American Foreign Policy Interests 35 (2): 101-107. doi:10.1080/10803920.2013.774926. Sudakov, S. 2015. PRAGMATIC POLICY OF THE UNITED STATES IN THE NATION-STATES BUILDING. Comparative Politics (Russia), 2(3(5), 96. Casula, P. (2010). Primacy in Your Face: Changing Discourses of National Identity and National Interest in the United States and Russia After the Cold War. Ab Imperio, 2010(3), 245-271. Schild, G. (2013). When the United States Invaded Russia: Woodrow Wilson's Siberian Disaster. Journal Of American History, 100(3), 864-864. Davis, Lynn Etheridge. (2015). The Cold War Begins: Soviet-American Conflict Over East Europe. Princeton University Press. Sundstrom, L. M., Henry, L. A. (2016). Russian Civil Society.Russian Civil Society: A Critical Assessment: A Critical Assessment, 305. Mead, Walter Russell. (2014): "The return of geopolitics: The revenge of the revisionist powers."Foreign Aff.93 (69.

The Immigrant And The Car Salesman Essays - Greek Culture, Mykonos

The Immigrant and the Car Salesman There was once a boy named Petros who immigrated to the United States from Greece. His family was very poor, so they came on a ship, and took a train to Chicago, where they thought they could find work. When Petros turned eighteen, he decided to move to Lynn, MA, where he settled in the Greek community. He began to work hard and saved all of the money he earned. He married, and, together with his wife, opened a small produce store. The business prospered, and Petros soon became a wealthy man. He was a very simple man and dressed humbly, always wearing his old hat when he went out. After a few years, Petros decided that he wanted a car, and he went to a Cadillac dealership. The owner of this dealership was aware that Petros was a rich man and knew about his successful business. He asked Petros what he wanted to buy, and Petros left the dealership with a new Cadillac. Over the years, Petros came to buy many different cars from the dealership. Many years later, when Petros was an old man, and his daughter had taken over the produce store, he put on his old hat and decided to go back to the Cadillac dealership. When he arrived at the dealership, a new salesman came out to help him. Petros asked him the price of one of the new models in the showroom. The salesman looked at the old man, with his foreign accent, and wearing his old, beat-up hat, and told him that it was very expensive and that he would show him a different one that was much more affordable. Petros told him that he still wanted it. The salesman insisted that the car was much too expensive and that it was not the right car for Petros. At that moment, the owner of the dealership came out of his office to go to lunch and, recognizing Petros, greeted him warmly. He asked him what he wanted to buy. Petros told him that he wanted the new Cadillac in the showroom, but that the salesman had tried to show him a different one because he didn't think he could afford the new one. The owner angrily fired the salesman, and Petros drove away in his new car. So we see that Las apariencias enga?an. In English, appearances are deceiving.

Political Culture Essay Example

Political Culture Essay Example Political Culture Essay Political Culture Essay â€Å"Drawing examples from any one Caribbean territory and using public opinion data from sources , to what extent is political culture less dependent on local culture as a result of recent technological developments. † Political culture is the particular set of orientations, beliefs, customs, and preconceptions which are shared by members of the society, which give meaning to their political process, and which provide the underlying assumptions that govern their political behaviour and public policies (Lawrence 6). On the other hand we have local culture, which Karen Lawrence describes as the history, family, politics, landscape, art, music and values and people melded into a sense of place that feels vibrant and cohesive and firmly rooted. Local culture is where and how one is connected to life and each other; it is the collective memory of a community. What is technology might one ask? Technology is the use of tools or instruments for any human activity. These human activities can be production, storage, exchange, transportation or even consumption. It is the branch of knowledge that deals with the creation and use of technical means and their interrelation with life society and the environment, drawing upon such subjects as industrial engineering,  applied  science,  and  pure science. Politics is an area which manifests may aspects of our culture and in these modern times, political culture in the Caribbean territory of Jamaica has become dependent on recent technological developments. Globalization is a process of interactions and integration among people, companies, and governments of different nations, a process driven by international trade and investment and aided by information technology. This process has effects on the environment, on culture, on political systems, on economic development and prosperity, as well as human physical well-being in societies around the world. Due to globalization, money, goods and manufacturing have become more mobile than they once were, and as a result corporations and businesses are allowed to finance, invest and move wherever they choose, they have a wider access to other countries across the world. There is a shift in the balance of power between international businesses and governments. National governments are less able to control the activities of mobile businesses than in the past, while corporations and financial institutions are in a better position to dictate to national governments. They do this by, purchasing the currencies of states whose policies they approve and abandoning, or threatening to abandon the rest. In 2003, Jamaica’s debt stood at $4. 4billion owing to the IMF, the debt required that 52 cents of every dollar earned goes for interest payments. By this time Jamaica had already paid back 17 times the amount of money originally borrowed. Farming and industry have been in crisis. There was a very high unemployment rate and there has been migration from the rural areas to Kingston, people in search of jobs and opportunities. There was an increase in crime and drug trade, which in turn have led to frequent police killings. Political violence and rioting has been seen in recent years. Responsible in part for this unrest and turmoil is globalization, ensnaring the country in enormous debt arranged by the International Monetary Fund (IMF), the World Bank, and other international lending agencies at high interest rates. â€Å"The structural adjustments that were imposed by the IMF had cause for an increase in interest rates to industry and farmers, so that they could no longer compete with the flood of subsidized or â€Å"dumped† foreign imports. These policies have driven down wages and forced the government to cut back funding for education, healthcare, and agricultural programs which benefit the poor (Harper 2003). † Again due to globalization there was civil unrest and mayhem in Jamaica. In 2009 there was an extradition request from the USA for Christopher â€Å"Dudus† Coke, a drug kingpin who enjoyed demigod status in the west Kingston stronghold of Tivoli Gardens. The United States wanted him for drug trafficking and gun trade. The then ruling party, the Jamaica Labour Party did not want to give up Mr. Coke, as he had close ties with the party. This included a construction company called Incomparable Enterprises, where Dudus was a partner, was awarded three government contracts by the JLP valued at $US 400 thousand, also a contract worth US $150,000 to transport materials to Riverton City landfill. Also the JLP was also responsible for campaigning and establishment of the â€Å"garrison† known as Tivoli. The USA said that they would cut all ties with Jamaica if Mr. Coke was not extradited. Jamaica depended on the US for money and imported products. Jamaica could not afford to lose America’s support, as so in turn, Dudus was extradited. This is a clear example of the influence of globalization. According to Alec Ross, one of the creators of technology policy for Barack Obamas 2008 presidential campaign, â€Å"We are well beyond being able to consider social media a fad. If you are not open to social media spaces then you are not attuned to the dynamics on the street and you sacrifice both understanding and power. The emergence of Social Media has caused for the political culture in Jamaica to be less dependent on local culture, due to this recent technological advancement. In 2007 statistics showed that 539. 543 per 1,000 people  in Jamaica used the internet, in 2005 3,042,000 people in Jamaica were telephone subscribers. Also in 2007 there were 2,700,000 mobile phone subscribers and 444. 079 per 1,000 people in Jamaica who had radios. In 2002, 70. 04% of households in Jamaica had televisions. These numbers are rising every year, with social media becoming more popular as the years go by. In Jamaica there are 7 local television channels; the two main local channels being CVM and TVJ (Gordon 89). These channels no longer focus on what is going on locally in the country or show many locally produced shows. The time slots for these stations are filled with American based television shows, cartoon and movies. The local news also doesn’t focus on what is happening in the country each day, but only gives us a brief overview and then skips to â€Å"international news† updating the public on what is happening in places such as USA, Canada, Asia and South America just to name a few. It is speculated that in Jamaica, the people know more about what is going on in America than they do about what is happening in their â€Å"own backyard. † In Jamaica during election time, the political parties use the media as a way to voice their opinions of the other parties and also articles and pictures are published in order to persuade voters to vote for a particular party or to persuade the public to vote in general. The media also helps with political socialization, this is the process by which people form their ideas about   politics and acquire political values, the two main political arties in Jamaica being the Jamaica Labour Party and the People’s National Party. Social media currently plays a huge part in the political culture of Jamaica. Jamaica tries to emulate the political culture of the United States of America that is using social media forums which include facebook and twitter as a way to promote political parties instead of sticking the usual me ans of newspapers and new channels. As technology develops, politics has to develop along with it. An example of this is seen by the creation of a facebook page called â€Å"Young Jamaica† which is an affiliate of the Jamaica Labour Party. The purpose of the page is to inform Jamaica’s youth about the JLP and to promote this party over the PNP. It encourages young Jamaicans to get enumerated and it also highlights the failures of the PNP and its members. Another example of social media forum is the seen by the creation of a facebook page called â€Å"Blame Bruce† which is an affiliate of the People’s National Party blaming past Prime Minister Bruce Golding for problems in Jamaica. There was also a â€Å"hashtag† on twitter called â€Å"Blame Bruce†. The Jamaican political culture is less dependent on the local culture. The most recent instance of the local culture being brought into politics was due to the Jamaica 50th celebration on August 6th 2012, Jamaica was an independent nation for 50 years. Due to technological developments, the political culture of Jamaica is less dependent on local culture. Globalization and Social media have had a huge effect on the political culture, as these seem to have more of an influence than the local culture.